experiments, Trait inferences, impression formation, and person memory: personality”, Morality and competence in person- and These judgments are obtained by attending to nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions and body posture, as well as multidimensional approach to the structure of personality In Condition 2, perceivers saw the same trait-list as in Condition 1, except for warm (which was replaced by cold). This limitation was acknowledged by Asch (1946), but seems to have been overlooked in many later references to his work. 1.1 Twofold conceptualizations of content in social psychology. Impression Formation Impression formation is often based on rapid assessments of salient and observable qualities and behaviors in others. Or, as Asch puts it: “the gaiety of an intelligent man is no more or less than the gaiety of a stupid man: it is different in quality” (p. 287). Unlike for warm, the distribution of rank frequencies for cold did differ from a flat distribution, X 2(2, N = 130) = 64.22, p < .001, Cohen’s w = 0.70. Looking at differences in “importance” in Experiment I, a significant difference existed between conditions. Impression Formation as Cognitive Algebra - Based on the notion that people are rational thinkers. For example, his stimulus lists contained unequal amounts of warmth- and competence-related traits and the ranking measure presupposes that perceivers can reliably indicate which traits influenced their impressions (which may not be the case; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Then, all traits were repeated once (cf. impression formation A social psychological term referring to the way in which strangers develop perceptions of each other. The participants in the first group were told that the person was “intelligent, skillful, industrious, warm, determined, practical, [and] cautious” while the second group of participants were told the person was “intelligent, skillful, industrious, cold, determined, practical, [and] cautious.”  The participants were then instructed to write a brief personality sketch of the person based on these character traits alone. Third, we randomly assigned participants to one of seven conditions to aid comparability of the studies (Asch ran the conditions in three separate studies). Checklist (Trait-Pair Choice Measure) as Used in, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany, The bigger one of the “Big Two”? For example, in the classic warm-cold study (Study I), participants were either exposed to a trait-list containing warm or to a trait-list containing cold, keeping all other traits identical between groups. He was interested in how we judge others and their personality based off small bits of information. However, even when taking the inferred traits into account (instead of limiting our search to the words warm and cold), we did not find evidence for primacy-of-warmth. impression formation Source: A Dictionary of Sociology Author(s): John Scott, Gordon Marshall. 2 A well-informed reader may notice that Asch writes in his introduction that he tested over a 1000 participants, but the results of only 834 are reported. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(3), 380–391. Averaged Impressions - Is our impression of an individual based on the sum of the values of known traits (Additive) or is it based on an average (sum of value of the traits divided by the number of known traits). A social psychological term referring to the way in which strangers develop perceptions of each other. in connotative meaning, Effects of varying trait inconsistency and response requirements labs” replication project, Forming impressions of personality: A critique, Primacy and recency effects with descriptions of B. Asch suggests that changing the context does not merely lead to affective shifts (or Halo effects), but modifies the entire Gestalt of the impression and the cognitive content of the traits within this Gestalt. Contribution statement: Designed research: S. N., I. H., D. W. Performed Contrary to the predictions based on a primacy-of-warmth approach, participants were as likely to mention intelligence in their description of the target person as they were to mention warmth. Change style powered by CSL. As apparent from Table 3 , 30.0% of participants ranked cold as the most important trait in determining their impression, whereas 36.2% ranked intelligent as the most important trait. Additive vs. 1. In sum, Asch’s data (1946) do not provide clear evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect. Though they expressed genuine interest in the tasks, the subjects were not aware of the nature of the problem until it wa… to associationistic and dimensional models of person perception, Likableness ratings of 555 personality-trait words, Primacy effects in personality impression L., I. H., D. W., R. V. Materials, data, the preregistered proposal, and Centrality, in his view, was a property multiple traits could possess simultaneously, a property determined by “the whole system of relations between traits” (p. 284). More information on the interpretation of warmth in different conditions is available in the Additional Findings. effect, Thinking about people: Contributions of a typological alternative A long tradition of (largely experimental) studies have investigated the impact of initial impressions. With over 2,750 references, Asch’s work has been “the stuff of textbooks” (Fiske et al., 2007, p. 78), forming part of the foundation on which this later research has been built. In sum, the open-ended descriptions do not provide evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect. A Brief History of Theory and Research on Impression Formation Automaticity and Control in Stereotyping and Prejudice: The Revolutionary Role of Social Cognition Across Three Decades of Research Attribution as a Gateway to Social Cognition In the present replication attempt, we aimed to critically examine the extent to which Asch’s seminal “Forming impressions of personality” (1946) provides evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect. for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences, Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and Popular AMA APA (6th edition) APA (7th edition) Chicago (17th edition, author-date) Harvard IEEE ISO 690 MHRA (3rd edition) MLA (8th edition) OSCOLA … My Table 2. In Condition 2, cold versus intelligent were mentioned equally often, F < 1, with means of 0.27 and 0.24, respectively. More specifically, cold was selected as most important trait by 30.0% of participants and as least important trait by 29.2% of participants: Participants seemed to have a polarized view on the importance of coldness, ranking it as important and as unimportant relatively frequently. The process of impression formation is often highly subtle, even unconscious and is influenced by a number of factors. The rapid creation of a unified perception or understanding of the character or personality of another person on the basis of a large number of diverse characteristics. For the super nerds out there like me, I have included my tables of results below. Preferential Ample research suggests that warmth is often primary over competence in people’s impressions of others (e.g., Fiske et al., 2007; Wojciszke, 2005), and Asch’s classic warm-cold study often is one of the first and foremost references for this effect. For the trait-pair choice measure, participants chose which trait (out of a pair) was most applicable to the target. For example, in Experiment 1, I converted 91% of participants in the “Warm” condition who endorsed “generous” back to a total of 82 people. Strategies in processing inconsistent information about persons, Recognizing contextual polarity in phrase-level sentiment Importantly, the centrality of warm and cold in Conditions 1 and 2 was even more absent in Conditions 3, 4, and 5, in accordance with Asch’s hypothesis (1946) that the centrality of warmth is context-dependent. osf.io/r6idy/. Table A1 of the Additional Findings provides a summary of all 10 studies. Ever since Asch (1946) established many of the foundational principles of impression formation one being that impression formation is an organized process – Asch goes on to identify 3 others. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI These results are consistent with those for the ranking measure, in that neither provides evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect in impression formation. Asch reports his findings from the first study alongside experiment two and three’s results in Table Two. affects the impact of central traits on impression formation, The In sum, the results of the ranking data do not provide evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect: intelligence, not warmth, was the primary determinant of participant’s impressions of personality. Consequently, the interpretation of these data was heavily contested by his contemporaries (e.g., Gollin, 1954; Luchins, 1948). Because Asch ran his experiments almost 70 years ago, he reported his results as the percentages of people who endorsed a given trait in their sketch. Although there is not one unitary message to be taken from the work (which has been cited over 2,750 times), the message that seems to have most strongly resonated with present-day researchers concerns the primacy-of-warmth effect. Although “Forming Impressions of Personality” has been regarded as a first demonstration of the primacy-of-warmth effect (e.g., Abele & Bruckmüller, 2011; Abele & Wojciszke, 2007; Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2008; Judd, James-Hawkins, Yzerbyt, & Kashima, 2005; Kervyn, Yzerbyt, & Judd, 2010; Richetin, Durante, Mari, Perugini, & Volpato, 2012; Vonk, 1994), it is unclear whether Asch’s original studies provide replicable evidence for the effect. Concurring with Condition 1, the results for the cold-list do not provide clear evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect. 5 Based on the literature by Cohen (1992) and power analysis with G*Power (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007), we had aimed to run 1,050 participants in total. First of all, we increased power and added statistical analyses of the ranking data and trait-pair choice data and systematic analyses of the open-ended responses, which were absent in the original publication. warm-cold variable in impressions of persons, Compensation between warmth and competence: Repeating the procedure for subjects in the Experiment 1 “Cold” condition, I found 6 people endorsed “generous” while 70 participants did not. We found no evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect. Participants were randomly assigned to one of seven trait lists (see Table 1 ). Thus, warm was central in Asch’s Study I when accompanied by traits like intelligent, skillful, industrious, determined, practical, and cautious, but was peripheral in Asch’s Study IV when accompanied by traits like obedient, weak, shallow, unambitious, and vain. Solomon Asch may be best known in social psychology for his 1951 Conformity Studies in which he brought participants into a room with seven confederates—actors pretending to be other participants—and had them recount the length of a line. Impression formation is the process by which we form an overall impression of someone’s character and abilities based on available information about their traits and behaviors. Changing polite to blunt, however, did not affect the valence of the impression (F < 1). Participants were not more likely to mention warmth in their descriptions of the target person than to mention intelligence; the traits they discussed in their descriptions were at least as strongly related to competence as they were to warmth; and a large part of participants did not make any references to warmth whatsoever. increase statistical power, Positive-negative asymmetry in evaluations: The distinction What are these conditions? Impression formation is essentially a form of person perception. Before demonstrating that normative pressure can lead people to lie, Asch was one of the foremost researchers on impression formation. He is credited with the seminal research on impression formation and conducted research on how individuals integrate information about … Asch primacy effect: Robust but not infallible, Asch on “Forming impressions of personality”: It has frequently been said that “first impressions matter.” Social psychological research supports this idea. Written long before the dawn of bite-size science (Bertamini & Munafo, 2012) and the advice to “role-play grandma” to create a clear storyline (Bem, 1987, p. 27), “Forming Impressions of Personality” (Asch, 1946) is as interesting as it is multifaceted. Asch concluded that individuals form dynamic impressions of others, based on more valenced or important character traits first with supporting or peripheral traits given lesser weight. Experiment two and three were variations of experiment one, demonstrating that individuals naturally sort people into the “warm” or “cold” category in the absence of a specific descriptor and that “polite” and “blunt” could be substituted for warm and cold respectively. Though this effect has been replicated repeatedly (e.g., Mensh & Wishner, 1947; Veness & Brierley, 1963; Semin, 1989), it may not provide the most stringent test of the primacy-of-warmth hypothesis, as changing any positive trait into a negative one is likely to influence the overall valence of the trait-list. To test this effect, which was not quantified in Asch’s original paper, we used textual analysis for assessing the valence of participants’ descriptions of the target person in the open-ended responses. approach to teaching social psychology topics in an undergraduate college course. The open-ended responses that were important in Asch’s theorizing were not systematically analyzed; the trait-pair choice measure seems unfit to test primacy-of-warmth; and the results of the ranking measure suggest that warmth was not central in determining participant’s impressions. I repeated this measure for each dependent variable and condition in all three experiments. Social Psychologist Solomon Asch was a pioneer in Gestalt Psychology. research: S. N., I. H. Analyzed data: S. N., O. L., I. H. Wrote paper: S. N., O. The discrepancy leads one to wonder what about assigning participants to a category versus allowing them to describe the perceived individuals as “warm” or “cold” leads them to change their evaluation of a perceived person. Framework The reader no doubt, while doing a basic course in psychology must have become familiar with the process of perception and some of the principles governing the same. For such unitary impressions, perceivers attribute different meanings and weights to traits, assigning central roles to some traits (these determine the meaning/function of other traits) and peripheral roles to others (their meaning/function is determined by central traits). The authors declare no conflict-of-interest with the content of this article. Not warmth, but intelligence, was primary in shaping participants’ impressions. Heider's later essay on social cognition, along with the development of "psycho-logic" by Robert P. Abelson and Milton J. Rosenberg,embedded evaluative processes in verbal descriptions of actions, with the verb of a descriptive sentence establishing the kind of linkage existing between the actor and object of the sente… Forming a Unified Impression: Procedure The plan followed in the experiments to be reported was to read to the sub-ject a number of discrete characteristics, said to belong to a person, with the instruction to describe the impression he formed. The Additional Findings contain additional analyses that have no direct relevance to the primacy-of-warmth effect, but are related to Asch’s hypotheses (1946) about the process underlying the above mentioned change in valence (pitting a change-in-meaning-effect, e.g., Hamilton & Zanna, 1974; Zanna & Hamilton, 1977, against a simple Halo-effect). processes, Effect of closure on formation of Determining “[c]ertain qualities are preponderantly assigned to the ‘warm’ person, while the opposing qualities are equally prominent in the ‘cold’ person,” (p. 264), Asch places “restrained” and “important” in the category of traits unaffected by his manipulation. As in Conditions 1 and 2, intelligent was rated as the most important trait in all conditions that included this trait (ranked highest by 53.5%–60.4% of participants), whereas warm and cold were not central in any condition that included one of these traits (ranked highest by 6.6%–7.8% of participants). Asch (1946) based his conclusions to a large extent on these open-ended responses, providing many anecdotes, but never systematically analyzing the data. In Conditions 6 and 7 (original Study III), the same lists as in Conditions 1 and 2 were used with warm and cold replaced by polite and blunt. The Chi-Square Tests for Independence generally support Asch’s qualitative claims, upholding his conclusion that character traits affect impression formation differentially. Asch’s qualitative methods led him to commit a Type II error, failing to recognize a difference between conditions when one existed. Impression Formation - Psychology bibliographies - in Harvard style . These have identified phenomena such as primacy effects and halo effects. Wilcoxon signed rank tests confirmed that intelligent received lower average ranks (indicating higher importance) than warm, Z(2, N = 159) = −7.27, p < .001, r = 0.41, with mean ranks of 1.89 and 3.67, respectively. Impression formation may be affected by (a) a person’s objective stimulus characteristics (b) the nature of stimuli and the context in which they are presented (c) perceiver variables (d) social interaction (Fidzani, 2002). Although also finding the statistical significance of results he correctly predicted interesting, I want to focus on the few existing differences between Asch’s conclusions and the significance suggested by statistics. In addition, several factors make it difficult to estimate the extent of evidence for primacy-of-warmth in Asch’s data: Several studies were insufficiently powered, the open-ended questions lacked a clear coding scheme, only incomplete accounts of the data were provided, and no quantitative statistical analyses were conducted.4 In the present research, we conducted a direct replication of Asch’s Studies I, III, and IV (the studies that are most relevant to the primacy-of-warmth effect; see Table A1 of the Additional Findings for an overview) to get more insight into the evidence Asch provides for a primacy-of-warmth in impression formation. similarity judgments, The additional findings are available on the project page on the Open Science In psychology Fritz Heider's writings on balance theory emphasized that liking or disliking a person depends on how the person is positively or negatively linked to other liked or disliked entities. Next, we calculated the difference between competence-relatedness scores and warmth-relatedness scores, forming a warmth-index. Instead, the used traits were at least as strongly related to competence as they were related to warmth, suggesting that warmth was not at the heart of participants’ descriptions of the target person. Thus, although the ranking measure and use of warmth-related terms in open-ended descriptions do not provide evidence for a strong version of the primacy-of-warmth effect, the warm-cold dimension nevertheless had a stronger influence on the overall valence of impressions than the polite-blunt dimension did. The “restrained” data further support Asch’s conclusions, as Experiment III failed to replicate prior findings (χ2(1, N=46) =0.63, ns). Tables 4 – 8 contain the average ranks for all remaining experimental conditions. Moreover, we conducted a direct replication of those studies in Asch’s publication that are particularly relevant to this effect. All traits mentioned by participants were rated by a separate group of participants (N = 33) on how warm and competent a person with that specific trait is (on a 7-point scale). supported by a grant of the Center for Open Science. formation, https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000179, Judd, James-Hawkins, Yzerbyt, & Kashima, 2005, Richetin, Durante, Mari, Perugini, & Volpato, 2012, Add this article to your Mendeley Library. In our replication of Asch’s studies, we failed to find any evidence for primacy-of-warmth. The subjects were all college students, most of whom were women. The differential rate of endorsement failed to hold statistically, however, as the χ2 values for Experiment II and III did not reach significance for differences in “importance” ratings (χ2(1, N=56) =0.011, ns and χ2(1, N=46) =0.36, ns), respectively). Differences in “restrained” ratings reach statistical significance, however, for both Experiments I (χ2(1, N=166) =7.211, p=.007) and II (χ2(1, N=56) =7.623, p=.008) despite the seemingly similar numbers of individuals endorsing the trait. Andrea E. Abele, Bogdan Wojciszke, in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2014. We thus simply counted the occurrence of all presented traits in participants’ descriptions of the target person (plus close synonyms and common incorrect spellings, e.g., inteligent instead of intelligent). Although Asch acknowledges that warmth plays an important role in impression formation, in his view, any trait can be central as well as peripheral. Impression formation is … Automatic vigilance: The attention-grabbing power of negative social information. Although it may seem as if the present replication attempt proves Asch (1946) wrong, note that Asch never claimed that warmth should be primary over competence. analysis, Association for Computational Cognitive and Learning Styles: The reader is already familiar with the role of cognitive and learning … Participants then wrote down their impression of the target person (open-ended measure), selected which traits from a trait-pair list were most applicable to the target (trait-pair choice measure; see Appendix), and ranked the original traits according to importance for their impression (ranking measure). The results for this measure do not provide any evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect: In Study I, warmth was ranked highest by 6 out of 42 participants, the exact amount that could be expected by chance (given that there are seven options). To determine which words in participants’ descriptions were traits, we used Anderson’s list of personality traits (Anderson, 1968); only words included in this list were considered in the present analysis.6 We generated a warmth index for 188 traits in this way: First, we calculated scores for warmth- and competence-relatedness by reverting the ratings to absolute values of the scores centered around the midpoint of the scale (e.g., the ratings one and seven would both be reverted to three, as both scores have a distance of three points to the midpoint of the scale). Social psychological laboratories have undergone considerable change since the publication of Asch’s “Forming Impressions of Personality” in 1946, leading to the inevitable demise of punch cards and slide carousels in favor of more advanced experimental equipment. Only 19.5% of participants ranked warm as the most important trait in determining their impression, whereas 55.3% ranked intelligent as the most important trait. impressions, Context effects in impression formation: Changes The subsequent nine studies featured variations to this paradigm, introducing other traits, manipulating the order of traits, asking participants to give synonyms for elements of the trait lists, or asking for judgments on how the provided traits are related. Impression formation in social psychology refers to the processes by which different pieces of knowledge about another are combined into a global or summary impression. Nonverbal behavior is any type of communication that does not involve speaking, including facial expressions, body language, touching, voice patterns, and interpersonal distance.Nonverbal behaviors are used to reinforce spoken words (Hostetter, 2011) but also include such things as interpersonal distanc… Many studies suggest that warmth plays an important role in impression formation (for a review, see Fiske et al., 2007; Wojciszke, 2005), but we wonder if Asch has befittingly been cited as the progenitor of this effect. between affective and informational negativity effects, Active learning exercises for teaching classic research on Linguistics, Reanalysis of “impressions of We further investigated the evidence for primacy-of-warmth in Conditions 1 and 2 by applying content analysis to the open-ended responses. Contrary to predictions based on primacy-of-warmth, participants used traits more strongly related to competence in Condition 1, t(136) = −3.81, p < .001, with an average warmth-index of −0.33, Cohen’s d = −0.32. We believe that Asch’s Gestalt theory, if anything, addresses the limitations and boundary conditions of primacy-of-warmth, and we wonder if his data provide any evidence for the effect itself. However, given that cold received relatively polarized ranks, the results are not as unequivocal as they are for Condition 1. For the ranking measure, participants ranked all traits from the stimulus list from most to least important to their impression. Memory and impression formation Hamilton et al (1980): Subjects asked to either: • Memorize a list of traits, or • Form impression of an individual based on same traits Later given a surprise recall test Impression formation subjects remembered significantly more items than memory task subjects I.F. 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